![]() As such, it is likely that motor activation observed during speech perception, for instance, corresponds to a sharing of computational or functional resources for perception and production of a given speech sound. Anderson’s theory of neural reuse additionally suggests that we should expect newly evolved functions such as language to make use of previously instantiated neural mechanisms whose computational functionality can be co-adapted for new purposes. More recent proposals argue for common coding of perceptual and motor information that arises primarily due to the co-activation of perceptual and motor components of a given action. As evidence accumulates that shows this is not the case and there is substantial overlap among the domains, theories of action production and action perception must be informed accordingly. In early theories of cognitive processing, motor processes and perceptual processes were understood as entirely separate and encapsulated mechanisms. Activity in motor regions during perception of human actions and language is ubiquitous. The motor system has received increasing attention in non-purely-motor domains. The same neural correlates underlying the creation of music and moving to music appear to be involved even when one is only listening to a musical piece. In recent years, neuroimaging studies have shown that passively listening to music activates brain regions that reside in the motor system proper. This profound shaping of temporal perception is central to understanding and participation in music, dance and even speech/conversation. In the case of (most) music, we do not merely passively receive temporal patterns, but actively engage with the sound stream by discerning an underlying periodicity. We discuss these findings in the context of the Action Simulation for Auditory Prediction (ASAP) model and other predictive coding accounts of brain function. These results suggest a central role of the motor system in music and rhythm perception. We also saw the widespread activation of motor networks including left and right lateral premotor cortex, right primary motor cortex, and the left cerebellum. As suspected, auditory activations were found in the bilateral superior temporal gyrus, transverse temporal gyrus, insula, pyramis, bilateral precentral gyrus, and bilateral medial frontal gyrus. After extensive search of the literature, 42 studies were analyzed resulting in a total of 386 unique subjects contributing 694 activation foci in total. In order to examine what specific roles are played by various motor regions during music perception, we used activation likelihood estimation (ALE) to conduct a meta-analysis of neuroimaging literature on passive music listening. However, many of these studies report the activation of varying motor system areas that include the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, dorsal and ventral pre-motor areas and parietal regions. Several neuroimaging studies have shown that listening to music activates brain regions that reside in the motor system, even when there is no overt movement.
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